Depression (Major Depressive Disorder) is one of the most common mental health conditions worldwide.
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1. What is Depression?
Depression is diagnosed when low mood or loss of interest persists for at least two weeks, accompanied by fatigue, sleep or appetite changes, feelings of guilt, poor concentration, or suicidal thoughts. Recent data show rising prevalence in both major depressive disorder and atypical depression.
2. Diagnosis and Symptoms
Diagnosis follows DSM-5 criteria. Screening tools such as the PHQ-9 are recommended to assess severity. In Korea, surveys in 2024 revealed that over 70% of adults reported chronic stress, depressive mood, or anxiety within the last year, showing rising mental health needs.
1) Core Symptoms
Persistent sadness and hopelessness
Loss of interest in activities
Fatigue and lack of energy
Sleep and appetite changes
Difficulties with focus and memory
Thoughts of self-harm or suicide
3. Treatment Strategies
2025 clinical guidelines recommend tailored treatment depending on severity and individual needs, combining medication and psychotherapy.
1) Medication Therapy
For mild depression, SSRIs are recommended as first-line treatment. For severe or psychotic depression, antidepressants may be combined with atypical antipsychotics. Esketamine nasal spray has emerged as an option for treatment-resistant depression (TRD), offering rapid symptom relief.
2) Non-Medication Therapy
Effective approaches include Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT), Interpersonal Therapy, physical exercise, and lifestyle modification. Bibliotherapy and structured social activities are also beneficial for mild to moderate depression.
3) Advanced Therapies
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and digital mental health tools (apps, wearables) are increasingly being adopted as supportive care for chronic and resistant cases.
Photo by Keenan Constance
4. Prevention and Self-Management
Preventing depression requires early detection and proactive lifestyle management:
Regular exercise, balanced diet, and quality sleep
Stress management and mindfulness practices
Community-based counseling and mental health centers
Monitoring mood changes through digital health tools and wearable devices
5. Policy and Public Health Response
Countries including South Korea are strengthening mental health policies (2021–2025 Mental Health Promotion Plan, HP2030). Strategies include expanding emergency psychiatric centers, improving community-based services, and reducing stigma through national campaigns.
As of 2025, depression is best managed with a multi-layered approach integrating medication, psychotherapy, lifestyle interventions, and national health policies. Early diagnosis, wider treatment accessibility, and public awareness are crucial to reducing the global burden of depression.
기후 변화와 계절적 환경 변화는 혈압에 실질적인 영향을 줍니다. 2025년 기준 연구에서는 겨울철 추위가 혈압을 상승시키고, 폭염은 생물학적 노화를 촉진하며 혈압 조절에 부정적 영향을 줌이 확인되었습니다.
1. 계절 변화와 혈압 변화의 연관성
혈압은 계절에 따라 변화하며, 특히 겨울에는 수축기 혈압이 상승하는 경향이 알려져 있습니다. 추운 날씨에 혈관이 수축하여 혈압이 상승하게 됩니다.
1) 실내 온도 조절의 중요성
일본 연구에 따르면 실내 온도를 1°C 높이면 아침·저녁 수축기 혈압이 각각 0.37 mmHg, 0.45 mmHg 감소하는 효과가 있습니다. 이를 통해 계절 변화에 따른 혈압 상승을 완화할 수 있습니다.
2) 간헐적 혈압 변화와 심혈관 위험
겨울철 변동성이 큰 혈압은 미래 심혈관질환 위험을 높이며, 각 개인의 일상 혈압 관리는 필수입니다.
2. 폭염과 기후 위기의 혈압 영향
폭염은 단지 더위를 유발할 뿐 아니라, 혈압, 콜레스테롤, 장기 기능 등을 포함한 생리적 나이를 빠르게 진행시킵니다. 폭염 노출이 증가하면 생물학적 연령이 실제 나이를 초과하는 속도가 빨라지고, 이는 심혈관질환 발생 위험을 높입니다.
1) 기온 상승과 고혈압 위험 증가
기후 변화와 대기 오염은 혈압 조절에 방해가 되며, 고혈압 발생률과 심혈관 위험을 증가시키는 중요한 요인입니다.
Thirdman 님의 사진
3. 여름의 밤 시간대 혈압 상승 경향
낮 동안 낮은 혈압을 유지하던 사람들이 여름 밤에 혈압이 오히려 상승하는 '야간 고혈압' 현상이 증가하는 경향이 있습니다. 이는 수면 장애, 야간 소변 증가, 체내 수분 변화 등이 복합적으로 영향을 미친 결과입니다.
4. 고혈압 관리 전략 및 적응 방법
겨울철에는 실내 온도 유지 및 조기 약물 조정으로 혈압 급등 완화
폭염 시 충분한 수분 섭취, 냉방기 사용, 무리한 활동 피하기
계절별 혈압 모니터링 강화—기존 치료 계획 조정
기후 관련 보건 캠페인 강화로 예방 의식 확산
기후 변화는 단순한 환경 문제를 넘어 우리의 혈압과 심혈관 건강에 직접적인 영향을 주고 있습니다. 2025년까지의 연구는 실내 환경 조절, 계절별 혈압 모니터링, 체온 관리와 같은 구체적 대응 전략을 제시하고 있습니다. 특히 겨울철과 폭염기에는 환경 적응과 정책적 대응 모두가 중요합니다.
Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Management 2025
Photo by Klaus Nielsen
Pneumonia is an infection that inflames the air sacs in one or both lungs and remains one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. According to 2025 WHO and infectious disease society guidelines, early diagnosis, timely treatment, and vaccination are critical in preventing severe outcomes.
1. Definition and Causes of Pneumonia
Pneumonia can be caused by bacteria, viruses, or fungi, and is most commonly transmitted through respiratory droplets. As of 2025, bacterial pneumonia remains the most frequent type, with Streptococcus pneumoniae identified as the primary causative pathogen.
1) Community-Acquired Pneumonia (CAP)
Pneumonia acquired outside of healthcare settings. It is most common in winter and during respiratory virus outbreaks.
2) Hospital-Acquired Pneumonia (HAP)
Develops 48 hours or more after hospital admission. It is often caused by multidrug-resistant organisms, making treatment more challenging.
2. Common Symptoms of Pneumonia
Pneumonia often begins with cold-like symptoms and progresses to more severe respiratory distress, including:
High fever and chills
Cough producing phlegm
Chest pain with breathing or coughing
Shortness of breath and fatigue
In elderly or immunocompromised patients, symptoms may be atypical, including confusion, loss of appetite, or decreased consciousness, which complicates early diagnosis.
3. Diagnosis of Pneumonia
Guidelines in 2025 emphasize the importance of early diagnosis, using both clinical symptoms and imaging tests.
1) Clinical Evaluation
Diagnosis begins with assessing symptoms such as fever, cough, chest pain, shortness of breath, and lung auscultation findings (crackles).
2) Imaging
Chest X-ray or CT scan confirms lung involvement. High-risk patients increasingly undergo CT for detailed evaluation.
3) Laboratory Tests
Blood cultures and sputum cultures help identify the pathogen and guide antibiotic therapy.
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4. Treatment of Pneumonia
Treatment varies depending on the patient’s age, comorbidities, and infection type. The 2025 standard care recommendations include:
1) Antibiotic Therapy
Bacterial pneumonia requires prompt initiation of antibiotics. For community-acquired pneumonia, amoxicillin or macrolides are commonly used, while severe cases may need broad-spectrum antibiotics.
2) Antiviral and Antifungal Agents
Viral pneumonia is mainly managed with supportive care, though influenza-related pneumonia may require antivirals such as oseltamivir. Immunocompromised patients with fungal pneumonia need antifungal therapy.
3) Supportive Treatment
Oxygen supplementation, fluid therapy, antipyretics, and pulmonary rehabilitation are often combined with primary treatment.
5. Prevention Strategies
Prevention remains the cornerstone of pneumonia control. As of 2025, the following measures are strongly recommended:
1) Pneumococcal Vaccination
Adults aged 65 and older, as well as individuals with chronic conditions, are advised to receive PCV20 or PPSV23 vaccines.
2) Influenza Vaccination
Annual flu vaccination not only prevents viral pneumonia but also reduces the risk of secondary bacterial pneumonia.
3) Lifestyle Modifications
Quitting smoking, regular exercise, adequate sleep, and proper hand hygiene all contribute to pneumonia prevention.
6. Complications of Pneumonia
Lung abscess
Pleuritis and pleural effusion
Sepsis
Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)
High-risk groups, including the elderly and immunocompromised, are more likely to experience severe complications, underscoring the need for early treatment.
Pneumonia is common but can be life-threatening if untreated. The 2025 guidelines emphasize the importance of early diagnosis, antibiotic treatment, and vaccination. Individual preventive efforts combined with national healthcare policies focusing on high-risk groups are essential to reduce pneumonia incidence and mortality.
바이러스성 폐렴은 대증치료가 원칙이지만, 독감 관련 폐렴은 오셀타미비르 등 항바이러스제를 사용합니다. 면역저하자의 진균성 폐렴은 항진균제를 투여합니다.
3) 보조 치료
산소 공급, 수액 치료, 해열제 투여, 호흡 재활 등이 병행됩니다.
5. 폐렴 예방 전략
폐렴은 예방이 무엇보다 중요하며, 2025년 기준 다음과 같은 예방 전략이 권장됩니다:
1) 폐렴구균 백신
65세 이상 고령자와 만성질환자에게 PCV20 또는 PPSV23 백신 접종을 권고합니다.
2) 인플루엔자 백신
독감 예방접종은 바이러스성 폐렴 예방뿐 아니라 2차 세균성 폐렴 발생 위험을 낮춥니다.
3) 생활습관 개선
금연, 규칙적인 운동, 충분한 수면, 손 위생 등이 폐렴 예방에 중요합니다.
6. 폐렴의 합병증
폐농양
흉막염 및 흉수
패혈증
급성 호흡곤란 증후군(ARDS)
특히 고위험군에서는 합병증 발생률이 높아 조기 치료가 중요합니다.
폐렴은 흔하지만 방치할 경우 생명을 위협할 수 있는 질환입니다. 2025년 최신 진료지침은 조기 진단과 항생제 치료, 백신 접종의 중요성을 강조하고 있습니다. 개인의 면역력 관리와 예방접종을 통해 폐렴 위험을 줄이고, 국가적 차원에서도 고위험군 지원 정책이 더욱 확대될 필요가 있습니다.
Causes, Symptoms, Diagnosis, Treatment, Prevention, and Complications
Andrea Piacquadio's pic
1. What is Meningitis?
Meningitis is an inflammation of the protective membranes (meninges) covering the brain and spinal cord. It can be caused by viruses, bacteria, fungi, and non-infectious conditions. Meningitis is a medical emergency requiring rapid treatment.
2. Causes and Transmission
1) Infectious Causes
Viral meningitis is most often caused by enteroviruses, though herpes simplex virus (HSV), measles, varicella, and influenza can also trigger it. Bacterial meningitis is typically caused by Neisseria meningitidis (meningococcus), Streptococcus pneumoniae, or Group B Streptococcus.
2) Non-Infectious Causes
Drug reactions, autoimmune disorders, cancers, or post-traumatic hemorrhage may also lead to meningitis.
3. Symptoms and Clinical Presentation
The classic triad of meningitis includes high fever, severe headache, and neck stiffness (sometimes with photophobia or altered mental status). Children and infants may present with nonspecific symptoms such as irritability, drowsiness, or poor feeding.
1) Risk of Complications
If treatment is delayed, serious complications such as hearing loss, epilepsy, hydrocephalus, and cognitive impairment may occur. In bacterial meningitis, 5~15% of patients may die or suffer permanent disability.
4. Diagnosis and Treatment
1) WHO Global Guidelines 2025
The 2025 WHO guideline emphasizes early diagnosis, immediate treatment, and long-term care. Importantly, antibiotic therapy should not be delayed even before confirmatory testing.
2) Diagnostic Methods
Lumbar puncture for cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis is the gold standard, measuring cell count, protein, glucose, and pathogen testing (PCR, culture). Rapid testing helps improve outcomes.
3) Treatment Approaches
Bacterial meningitis requires immediate intravenous antibiotics and often corticosteroids to reduce neurological complications. Viral meningitis is usually self-limited, but antivirals are indicated in HSV cases. Fungal meningitis requires antifungal therapy.
5. Vaccination and Prevention
Vaccination remains the most effective preventive measure. The MenACWY vaccine is recommended at 11–12 years with a booster at 16 years. Recently approved pentavalent vaccines (Penbraya, Penmenvy) for ages 10–25 broaden protection against multiple meningococcal strains.
6. Global Goals and Policy Directions
The WHO “Defeat Meningitis by 2030” initiative aims to eliminate meningitis epidemics, reduce vaccine-preventable cases by 50%, and lower mortality by 70% worldwide through vaccination programs and rapid access to care.
Meningitis is a life-threatening disease but can be prevented and managed effectively with the latest 2025 guidelines. Early recognition, rapid treatment, vaccination, and global policy cooperation are key strategies to protect individuals and communities.
